SCIENCE

PHYSICS

Becker does not tell listener/readers anything new about reality in his book, but he outlines the difficulty Physics is having in trying to discover “What is Real”. For this reviewer, Einstein remains the sun around which Physics’ scientists revolve.

Books of Interest
Website: chetyarbrough.blog

What is Real (The Unfinished Quest for the Meaning of Quantum Physics)

Author: Adam Becker

Narrated By: Greg Tremblay

Adam Becker (Author, science writer with a PhD in astrophysics from the University of Michigan and a BA in philosophy and physics from Cornell.)

This is an excellent story about the meaning of quantum physics even though the answer remains elusive. Becker does a great job of revealing the personalities of great physicists of the twentieth century, i.e. Niels Bohr, Albert Einstein, Erwin Schrödinger, David Bohm, Werner Heisenberg, John von Neumann, Hugh Everett III, John Bell, and to a lesser extent, Paul Dirac, and Grete Hermann.

Bohr is shown to be a brilliant person who gathers the luminaries of physics around him like a queen bee to a beehive. Surprisingly, Becker notes Bohr’s abstruse and convoluted verbal and written explanations of physics cloud his brilliance but fascinate and inform young scientists. In contrast, Einstein appears like a sun that physics’ luminaries revolve around. Einstein never accepts the idea of quantum physics that implies we live in a probabilistic world. David Bohm is a brilliant physicist exiled for his political beliefs but importantly theorizes the Pilot-wave theory for quantum physics that suggests wave collapse is immeasurable and therefore meaningless. If true, the “cause and effect” world insisted upon by Einstein is correct. Surprisingly, Einstein demurred but the theory is being resurrected by Logical Positivist today.

Though Heisenberg creates the idea of Quantum theory that argues for a probability world, he becomes a Nazi science leader who fortunately fumbles the mathematics that could have created an atom bomb for Germany during WWII.

As a protege of Bohr, the theory of a Quantum world takes hold of scientists. John von Neumann is shown as a mathematical genius who challenges Bohm’s Pilot-wave theory because quantum mechanics appears to work and is proven by experimentation. Bohm argues, like Einstein, that the universe is fundamentally knowable and deterministic, not probabilistic. Hugh Everett III is taken under the wing of John Wheeler who is Everett’s PhD advisor at Princeton. Everett is characterized as a brilliant student who takes the idea of the disappearance of a collapsed quantum particle not as a collapse but an entry into another world, another dimension of reality.

Having read and partly understood many books about physics, Becker’s history is most entertaining because of added information about physicists’ personalities and disagreements, along with their personal trials and tribulations.

An added benefit is a little more understanding of physics that is offered to dilatants of science like this science ignoramus.

Pilot Wave Theory suggests the collapsing wave shown by quantum experiments is of no concern and that it should be ignored as a factor for non-predictability.

Putting aside collapsing waves in theoretical physics, the pilot wave theory, also known as Bohmian mechanics, was the first known example of a hidden-variable theory, presented by Louis de Broglie in 1927. Its more modern version, the de Broglie–Bohm theory, interprets quantum mechanics as a deterministic theory, and avoids issues such as wave function collapse, and the paradox of Schrödinger’s cat by being inherently nonlocal. This nonlocal experimental proof violates Einstein’s physics beliefs.

**The surprising reveal in Becker’s history is the growing belief in Logical positivism which suggests the argument for quantum mechanics is flawed.**

As one goes back to Bohm’s Pilot-theory. The surprising reveal in Becker’s history is the growing belief in Logical positivism which suggests the argument for quantum mechanics is flawed. The inability to measure both position and momentum is not proof of the theory because it is not an observable phenomenon. In a backward sense it implies Einstein is still the sun around which physics scientists orbit. An irony is that Becker believes Einstein would not want to be considered a Logical Positivist.

John Stewart Bell (1928–1990) was a Northern Irish physicist whose work reshaped the foundations of quantum mechanics.

Bell is best known for formulating Bell’s Theorem, a landmark result that showed how quantum mechanics predicts correlations between entangled particles that no local hidden-variable theory can explain. In one sense, that theory suggests as Einstein believed, that there is an undiscovered theory that will return physics to a cause-and-effect world. However, belief in non-locality is something Einstein could not accept. He refused to believe in “spooky action at a distance”. Bell was born in Northern Ireland. His fascination with science led him to CERN in Geneva where he worked on foundational questions in quantum theory.

Bell’s work laid the groundwork for quantum information science, including quantum computing and cryptography.

Bell came from a modest background and rose to prominence through sheer intellectual brilliance. He worked at CERN in Geneva, where he pursued foundational questions in quantum theory as a kind of “hobby” alongside his main work in particle physics. His 1981 paper “Bertlmann’s Socks and the Nature of Reality” used a quirky analogy to explain quantum entanglement and the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox.

Bell wasn’t just a theorist—he was a philosopher of physics in the deepest sense, asking what quantum mechanics tells us about the nature of reality itself. Bell derived mathematical inequalities—called Bell inequalities. He believed that any local hidden-variable theory must obey these inequalities. However, quantum mechanics predicts violations of these inequalities under certain conditions. Bell is reintroducing the belief that quantum particles are fundamentally probabilistic and interconnected in ways that defy classical intuition. The universe doesn’t follow the rules of local realism. Quantum mechanics is correct, but it’s weird—deeply weird and challenges Einstein’s belief that physics are a local phenomenon that will be predictable based on an undiscovered truth.

Logical positivism and Bell’s Theorem intersect in a fascinating way. Bell’s Theorem challenges some of the foundational assumptions that logical positivists held about science, meaning, and reality. Because of “spooky action at a distance”, his theory defies Einstein’s belief in locality and reintroduces the concept of unpredictability which Einstein refuses to believe.

As a philosopher, Hermann (19o1-1984) had a particular interest in the foundations of physics. In 1934, she argues for a conception of causality with a revised view of quantum mechanics. Her work reinforces Einstein by returning Quantum Physics to predictability and causality. Hermann concludes–despite experiments that showing quantum mechanics are probabilistic, the theory is wrong because of a misunderstanding of nature. This seems like a cop-out supporting Einstein’s belief that there are some undiscovered laws of physics.

HUMAN FLAW

A not surprising irony in “They Made America” is that great innovators like the rest of us are flawed. Ford is widely considered an antisemite, Edison is too opinionated to countenance differences of opinion, Rockefeller is an elitist, Singer is a misogynist and so and so on

Books of Interest
Website: chetyarbrough.blog

They Made America (From the Steam Engine to the Search Engine: Two Centuries of Innovators)

Author: Harold Evans, Gail Buckland & 1 more

Narrated By: Harold Evans

Harold Evans (Author, 1928-2020, British journalist died at age 92.)

“They Made America” is partly about inventions but mostly about innovations that transform society. He writes of America but his explanation of making any successful economy requires innovation. Invention may be a beginning while innovation has no end. He writes of mostly American men whose imagination leads to innovations that transform America’s economy. The generation of power, and advances in communication, transportation, finance, and culture are the consequence of innovation that may or may not be based on original invention. Some of a nation’s economic and social advancement is from unique invention but all of a nation’s success is a result of innovation.

During the Obama administration, America’s economic growth began to decline and accelerated with the Covid 19 pandemic.

Evans and his co-authors identify many who have contributed to the success of America’s economic growth. Most of those he identifies are Americans but a few like Leo Baekeland, Reginald Fessenden, and Herbert Boyer show that innovation is not just an American phenomenon. Baekeland is a Belgian who invented Bakelite and became a U.S. citizen. Bakelite is the first fully synthetic plastic that revolutionized design and manufacture of consumer goods. Fessenden was a Canadian who pioneered radio transmission technology and Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson were Americans who collaborated with many international scientists to create Genetech, the first biotech firm in the world that commercialized recombinant DNA for life-saving medicines like insulin.

Though British innovator, James Watt, did not invent the steam engine he radically improved it by adding a separate steam condenser.

The invention and innovational changes of the steam engine led innovators like Robert Fulton to see how a steam engine could power a steamboat. The invention of the automobile led to Henry Ford’s innovations in assembly line work that reduced the cost of production to make cars available to almost every working American. Ford also increased wages of his workers so they could buy Ford products. The founder of Bank of America, A.P. Giannini, innovated lending with idea of consumer banking giving workers a way to secure their paychecks in a bank that could provide a means to pay for services and possible credit based on accumulated wealth in their checking account. Innovations in communication by Ted Turner, Page and Brin, and Jobs and Wozniak changed the media communications industry.

Thomas Edison (1847-1931).

The recounting of the many American innovators in “They Made America” is not a picture of idealized human beings. Thomas Edison, who is among the greatest innovators in America, created a team of experimenters at Menlo Park in New Jersey. Edison created an “Invention Factory” that led to the electrification of the world. Though he did not believe in alternating current (AC) as an improvement over direct current (DC) in the use of electricity, he envisioned an electrical system that would light the dark streets of the world. Edison is a perfect representation of inventor and innovator in Evans’ American story. Edison’s belief in himself, his drive for accomplishment, and risks he was willing to take, exemplify the best an American entrepreneur can be.

Isaac Merritt Singer (1811-1875).

Isaac Singer innovated sewing machine manufacturing and sale but led a profligate life as a seducer of women with a volatile reputation that often erupted in anger toward others. Singer is alleged to have fathered 24 children from wives and girlfriends. Like his name, Singer was a showman who demonstrated his machines and built a brand that remains popular today. He was flamboyant and accused of bigamy and adultery but is noted to have created a global sales and service company with an installment purchasing plan for his machines. He carries the same force of nature as Edison but with the development of a singular product.

John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937).

In contrast to either Edison or Singer, Rockefeller is primarily focused on increasing his wealth and power. He revolutionizes the oil industry through monopolization while raising prices of oil to increase his wealth. He brands his product, reduces his costs of operation by building oil pipelines to reduce delivery costs and develops a corporate strategy to eliminate competition. His focus is on creating an industrial empire.

Evans notes other innovators like Ted Turner and Malcolm McLean and their innovations in media and global shipping. The lesser-known McLean introduced and launched the first container ship in 1956 that dramatically reduced loading times, labor costs, and cargo theft in the shipping industry. Ted Turner created CNN and TBS to revolutionize the news and entertainment industries. Page and Brin, and Jobs and Wozniak unleashed the internet to offer wider knowledge to the world but also provided a network that spread lies and misrepresentations of truth.

Dr. He Jiankui is an example of human blind spots. (Jiankui claims to have conducted the first human genome-editing of a human embryo with no oversight and a botched process that embarrassed the scientific community.)

The common denominator of these and many more innovators described in Evans’ book (though Jiankui is not mentioned) is their ambition, ego, and human blind spots. Edison is domineering and ruthlessly competitive. Ford’s antisemitism is reflected in his support for Adolph Hitler and being the only American cited in “Mein Kampf” as a model of antisemitism. Rockefeller shows the same traits as Edison as a corporate hegemon while using his innovative skill to dominate competitors and corner the market price for oil. Singer improves the utility of sewing machines through innovation and salesmanship while living life as though his personal ego is all that matters.

A not surprising irony in “They Made America” is that great innovators (like all of us) are flawed. Ford is widely considered an antisemite, Edison is too opinionated to countenance differences of opinion, Rockefeller is an elitist, Singer is a misogynist, Jiankui is a scofflaw, and so and so on. On balance however, innovators make a contribution to the success of America while most of us go along to get along.

THEORY & TRUTH

Without a doubt, Einstein was the premier scientist of the 20th century just as Newton was of the 17th. Though their characters were quite different, their thoughts and contributions to the physics of life on earth and in the universe remain world changing.

Books of Interest
Website: chetyarbrough.blog

The Perfect Theory (A Century of Geniuses and the Battle over General Relativity)

Author: Pedro G. Ferreira

Narrated By: Sean Runnette

Pedro Ferreira (Anglo-Portuguese cosmologist, professor at the University of Oxford with expertise as theoretical cosmologist and astrophysicist.)

“The Perfect Theory” is a history of physics that revolves around Albert Einstein’s brilliant discoveries in the early 20th century. Einstein believed in general relativity that included gravity and acceleration which he argued is caused by the curvature of spacetime. Einstein implies the equality of mass and energy is a precursor to the proof of general relativity. Ferreira argues that post twentieth century physics’ theories have only contrasted and expanded Einstein’s first discovery of the equivalence of energy and mass, which is a part of a “…Perfect Theory”. Einstein’s theory seems perfect in the sense that it is a foundational theory from which most discoveries about physics have been based. This seems hyperbolic with the experimental proof of Quantum Dynamics (a science theory describing the behavior of particles at atomic and subatomic scales), but the idea of a Quantum world seems only a tentative expansion, rather than refutation of Einstein’s “…Perfect Theory”.

What Ferreira shows is how Einstein‘s general theory of relativity shaped modern theories of cosmology.

Though Einstein believed the universe was an eternal existence, that never expanded or contracted, he had to create a cosmological constant to make that theory work. He began moving away from that belief in the 1930s. Edwin Hubble’s theory of an expanding universe led to the “Big Bang Theory” that turned what Einstein suggested was a vindication of his discomfort with the idea of arbitrarily devising a cosmological constant to make his vision of the universe work. (Interestingly, Einstein remained skeptical of the Big Bang model of the universe’s creation when its expansion was proven.) Edwin Hubble proved through observation and calculation that the universe was expanding rather than static. Later science discovery of “dark energy” is thought to be the engine for expansion which ironically revives the theory of Einstein’s cosmological constant.

Edwin Hubble (1889-1953, American astronomer.)

John Wheeler and Roger Penrose in the 1960s confirmed the existence of black holes based on Einstein’s concept of regions of the universe that would have such strong gravity pull that nothing could escape its attractive force. The belief that nothing could escape was challenged by Stephen Hawking who argued that black holes emit radiation and eventually evaporate. Nevertheless, it is Einstein’s early work that initiated further investigation and theory modification.

John Wheeler (1911-2008, American Physicist)

Einstein predicted gravitational waves that were not confirmed until 2015 by LIGO’s (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory) detection. Einstein had predicted gravitational wave existence in 1916 but was uncertain whether they were physically real or just mathematical affects based on his thought experiments about massive accelerating objects, like orbiting planets.

LIGO (Located @ Hanford in the Tri-Cities of Richland, Kennewick, and Pasco in Washington State.)

Ferreira’s book explains how important Einstein’s legacy is in today’s understanding of the Universe, its creation, and possible future.

The most significant curve ball thrown at Einstein’s “…Perfect Theory” of the universe is Quantum Mechanics. Though he grudgingly acknowledged the experimental proof of Quantum Entanglement, he remained skeptical of quantum mechanics and its philosophical implications. The proven predictions of quantum mechanics shake the foundation of what Einstein believed about the universe. Quantum mechanics suggests the universe’s existence, whether it began with a Big Bang or not, is a matter of probability, not predictable certainty. Einstein’s theories were based on a belief in a clockwork universe–where cause and effect would explain everything about the physics of existence.

Though Einstein did not believe in a personal God, he believed in order, harmony, and rationality in a world that has a cause for every effect.

Twenty first century physics’ research owes more to Einstein than any other scientist in history. It is not that Einstein was or is infallible, but his theories are the foundation of physics research. His idea of a static universe may have been wrong, but the story of dark energy makes one wonder if his cosmological constant might have been right. Einstein was skeptical of the Big Bang theory as the origin of the universe despite it being the belief of most scientists today. Though he resisted quantum mechanics unpredictability, he acknowledged its experimental proofs with the caveat that there is an undiscovered law that will return predictability to the physics’ world. What Pedro Ferreira credibly argues is that Albert Einstein provided “The Perfect Theory” to explore truth and falsehood of the physics of the universe.

HEALTH

“This is Your Brain on Parasites” is a bad book title but McAuliffe has written an interesting book about physical and mental health, and the treatments being researched in the 21st century.

Books of Interest
Website: chetyarbrough.blog

This is Your Brain on Parasites (How Tiny Creatures Manipulate Our Behavior) and Shape Society

By: Kathleen McAuliffe

Narrated By: Nicol Zanzarella

Kathleen McAuliffe (Author, science journalist who has published in The New York Times, The Atlantic, and Smithsonian. Received an M.A. in natural science from Trinty College Dublin.)

Kathleen McAuliffe apprises the public of the importance of personal health along with a somewhat bizarrely titled book “This is Your Brain on Parasites”. McAuliffe’s book is about the science of health and its maintenance. The idea of a parasite in one’s brain seems unworthy of a book because of the creepy implication of possession. However, McAuliffe refers to a physician and several research scientists that have found evidence of brain parasites that effect animal and human behavior.

Dr. Robert Sapolsky. (Now retired but has written several books on biology and animal behavior.)

Dr. Robert Sapolsky, a neuroscientist and professor at Stanford studied what is called a Toxoplasma gondii parasite. It forms cysts in brain tissue that are shown to affect human behavior. People who have developed the cysts have shown symptoms of risk-taking behavior, and mental dysfunction like schizophrenia.

Dr. Jaroslav Flegr is a parasitologist, evolutionary biologist and professor of biology at the Faculty of Science, and professor at Charles University in Prague.

McAuliffe meets with a Czech scientist, Dr. Jaroslav Flegr, who conducted research showing the Toxoplasma gondii parasite in cat feces can infect the brain of a human being. The author meets other American research scientists that show how parasites infect animal brains whose behavior is affected in ways that are not natural to their species. A parasite being the source of a diseased brain has implications for treating mentally dysfunctional patients that may have a parasitic infection.

What McAuliffe’s book implies is the importance of washing one’s hands when handling pets, or their fecal material.

“This is Your Brain…” reminds one of the importance of hygiene when replenishing a bird feeder or filling an animal feeding trough to avoid possible parasites.

As most know, Kennedy is not a believer in vaccination despite a growing measles epidemic and the proof that vaccination works. McAuliffe does believe there are circumstances where a child crawling across the floor of a clean house gathers some immunity naturally but that un-common pathogens require uncommon vaccination.

Two other subjects mentioned by McAuliffe is natural and science made vaccinations and the benefits they provide humanity. This is a particularly timely suggestion considering Trump’s appointment of Robert F. Kennedy Jr. (a confessed anti-vaxxer) as the Secretary of Health and Human Services.

McAuliffe notes how research is showing how certain microbes can remove calories from food and how certain drugs can reduce hunger among overweight patients. She reflects on the intersection of microbiology and human health.

Another interesting examination by McAuliffe is the science research being done on gut microbiomes, a community of microorganisms in human digestive systems.

The research on microbiomes has resulted in effective weight loss drugs that have become popular medications for people struggling with weight gain.

“This is Your Brain on Parasites” is a bad book title but McAuliffe has written an interesting book about physical and mental health, and the treatments being researched in the 21st century.

HUMAN

What is the value of high IQ? If everyone was smarter, would they be happier? It seems the only real value of genetics is in the prevention of known diseases, not in improvement of IQs or creation of a perfect human being (whatever that is).

Books of Interest
Website: chetyarbrough.blog

The Social Genome: The New Science of Nature and Nurture

By: Dalton Conley

Narrated By: Christopher Douyard

Dalton Clark Conley (Author, Princeton University professor, American sociologist.)

Dalton Conley offers a complex explanation of why one child intellectually and financially excels while others are left behind. The “Social Genome” is an attempt to explain the complexity and inadequacy of genetic research. Not too surprisingly, there seems a correlation between wealth and intellectual development, but its relationship includes familial and environmental nurturing in ways that are too complex for today’s science to measure.

FAMOUS WOMEN IN HISTORY (Many women are as intellectually strong and mentally tough as men, e.g. Cleopatra, Sojourner Truth, Indira Gandhi, Golda Meir, Benazir Bhutto, Malala Yousafzai, and others.)

Dalton argues both genetics and environment shape human intellect and economic success. However, science’s current knowledge of genetic and environmental impact is not clearly understood in a way to aid human development. The current limitations of science make it impossible to determine the precise genetic and environmental factors that shape human development. Dalton offers many examples of how genetics and environment are relevant to human development, but neither are precisely measurable nor manageable.

The idea of clearly understanding the genetic and environmental causes of who humans become is a bit frightening.

Even if it were possible to achieve precise measurement of genetic and environmental influences, should that knowledge be used to create designer human beings?

Piketty argues that the income gap widens after World War II. He estimates 60% of 2010’s wealth is held by less than 1% of the population.

Dalton does believe there is a correlation between economic well-being and IQ, but the correlation is affected by genetic inheritance. Dalton concludes economic well-being is a positive factor in IQ improvement. That raises questions about how one can improve the economic well-being of a society to improve IQ. Dalton infers there is no one size fits all solution for IQ improvement. Nurture and nature are too intimately intertwined to know how IQ of a society can be improved. A conclusion one may draw is that environmental and societal factors like human nutrition, general education and improved equal opportunity can mitigate IQ diminishment. Whether one should modify human genomes is a step too far.

In many ways, this is a frustrating book to listen to or read.

If all people looked more alike than different would there be less conflict in the world? No, but being of one race or another makes a difference in one’s opportunities in the world. What is the value of high IQ? If everyone was smarter, would they be happier? It seems the only real value of genetics is in the prevention of known diseases, not in improvement of IQs or creation of a perfect human being (whatever that is).

UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE

The immense downside of an unpredictive future is the many setbacks that will occur because of inept political leadership. Science is not an answer. It is only a tool for understanding.

Books of Interest
Website: chetyarbrough.blog

Science in the 20th Century (A Social-Intellectual Survey)

By: The Great Courses

Narrated By: Steven L. Goldman

Professor Steven L. Goldman.

Goldman’s review of 2oth century science identifies the fundamental change that has occurred in today’s perception of reality. One wonders if Albert Einstein was wrong about the predictability of science. Even at the end of Einstein’s life, he believed quantum mechanics was just a step in scientific research and not a basis for the truth of reality. Einstein insisted there was an undiscovered law about the nature of reality that would return life to predictability. The details of Goldman’s “Science in the 20th Century” infers otherwise.

Unpredictability of life’s existence is reinforced by Professor Goldman’s summary of scientific discoveries.

What is true of physics in the world, seems true for all the sciences. Whether reviewing the physical, biological, algorithmic, social, or applied sciences, unpredictability exists. Every science seems as unpredictable for the same reason as noted in the science of the quantum world. One cannot identity both position and momentum of an atomic particle at the same time. By the same measure, popularly elected representatives or authoritarian dictatorships cannot be measured by their position and direction of action. One can see a leader’s position but not measure their direction until the direction is past. Who would have thought Hitler would be the instigator of WWII? World leaders today are just as unpredictable. Citizens cannot measure leader’s positions and direction in advance. Citizens can only see one or the other at a specific point in time–never both position and direction at the same time.

What Goldman’s history of science implies is that if we live in a world of quantum mechanics, all life is, always has been, and always will be, unpredictable.

The solace in this possible truth is that, though there is still immense societal conflict and inequality in the world, science has improved society.

Technology has improved communication, transportation and daily life.
Vaccines, antibiotics, and surgical operations have drastically improved helath and life expectancy.
The world population has become more literate and has greater access to education than ever before.
Equality and justice show some progress in human rights, gender equality and social inclusion.
Enviornmental awareness has improved to combat climate change which has led to renewal energy innovations and conservation initiatives.
The world has increased connectivity to improve cultural exchange, economic collaboration and shared global interests.

Science is not an answer. It is only a tool for understanding.

The immense downside of an unpredictive future is the many setbacks that will occur because of inept political leadership. From the perspective of quantum mechanics, one hopes leadership means do not justify humanity’s end.

Scientific discovery revealed the theory of evolution, the germ theory of disease, the laws of motion and universal gravitation, the theory of relativity, the discovery of DNA, drugs to cure disease, and quantum mechanics that imply future unpredictability. This is the daunting message of Goldman’s lectures.

Books of Interest
Website: chetyarbrough.blog

Science in the 20th Century (A Social-Intellectual Survey)

By: The Great Courses

Narrated By: Steven L. Goldman

Professor Goldman received a B.S. Degree in Physics from Polytechnic University of New York and received a Master of Arts and PhD in Philosophy from Boston University.

Professor Goldman offers lectures on transformative scientific discoveries of the 20th century. He begins with great discoveries in physics by Newton, Einstein, Curie, Bohr, Planck, Heisenberg, Dirac and others who broaden a listener’s understanding of the universe, Earth, life, and humanity. He melds science into philosophy which gives a generalist an appreciation of genius and its limitations. From the limitations of microscopes, thermometers, spectroscopes, barometers, and galvanometers, Goldman draws lines between science’s experimentally reproducible facts and philosophy’s speculation.

Newton and Einstein had different understandings of the universe. Newton understood gravity as a force between two masses, subject to earth’s gravitation. Einstein redefined Newton’s gravity as a power exerted throughout the universe and between planets rather than one planet we call earth. Einstein proves the power of gravity is based on forces beyond earth though Newton’s interpretation is predictive of most physics’ phenomena on earth, it fails to predict the effects of time, space, and energy in the universe. Einstein’s discoveries lead to a theory of General Relativity where mass and energy are equal to each other and interchangeable. Newton viewed space and time as absolute while Einstein viewed them as relative. Newton’s physics were simpler to understand while Einstein’s required advanced mathematics that took into consideration the warping of space and time. To Newton, the speed of gravity was a constant while to Einstein, the only constant was the speed of light. To Newton two occurrences could occur simultaneously but Einstein recognized simultaneity is impossible. Any distance between the two occurrences will always be observed at the speed of light which means they cannot have happened at the same time because they cannot be in the same place. The speed of light controls the observation of action. Two occurrences cannot occupy the same space therefor they cannot happen simultaneously.

Professor Goldman explains the many utilitarian uses of great scientific discoveries from so many scientists that names become too numerous to be recalled.

However, without their discoveries, humanity would not have entered the age of Artificial Intelligence and the reality of information as an energy source in the world; not to mention the many scientific discoveries that have improved the lives of 8.2 billion people. (Another side of that story is the number of people killed by WMD, undiscovered cures for disease, and earth’s pollution by humanities use of known and yet to be known discoveries.)

Without fossil fuels, renewable energy, and nuclear power, humanity would still be living in caves, subject to nature’s choice. The importance of information is why we read books, listen to lectures, rely on remembrance of things past, and choose the course of our lives. As Shakespeare noted in The Tempest, “What’s past is prologue”.

MARS & BEYOND

Mahaffey is a supporter of nuclear energy and its potential for earth’s energy needs. He argues fission can be made a useful source of energy while fusion research holds the best opportunity for humanity’s future.

Books of Interest
Website: chetyarbrough.blog

Atomic Adventures (Secret Islands, Forgotten N-Rays, and Isotopic Murder-A Journey into the Wild World of Nuclear Science.)

By: James Mahaffey

Narrated By: Keith Sellon-Wright

James Mahaffey (Author, Research scientist at Georgia Tech Research Institute)

“Atomic Adventures” is a reminder of the race for the atomic bomb, its wide pursuit by nations of the world, and research for the holy grail of atomic fusion. Mahaffey’s science explanations are tedious for non-scientists, but his history of the secrets and use of atomic energy are interesting and surprising.

The United States, with the help of the UK, may have been first to acquire the atom bomb in 1945, but eight more nations acquired it by 2006.

United States: Acquired in 1945.

Russia (formerly the Soviet Union): Acquired in 1949.

United Kingdom: Acquired in 1952.

France: Acquired in 1960.

China: Acquired in 1964.

India: Acquired in 1974.

Israel: Believed to have acquired in the late 1960s, though it maintains a policy of deliberate ambiguity.

Pakistan: Acquired in 1998.

North Korea: Acquired in 2006

It is somewhat ironic that Pakistan did not acquire the atom bomb until 1998 when Pakistan’s “father of the bomb”, Abdul Qadeer Khan, became a rich man by selling technological know-how of the bomb to nations like North Korea, Libya, and Iran.

Abdul Qadeer Khan (1936-2021, father of Pakistan’s atomic weapons program, died at age 85.)

As a singular discovery, Einstein’s E = mc² offered a dual opportunity for the world, i.e., destruction and/or survival of the human race. The bomb suggests destruction while nuclear fusion offers an inexhaustible energy source that could reverse global warming and rocket human beings to other worlds.

ALBERT EINSTEIN (1879-1955, died at age 76.)

Mahaffey explains the immense potential of nuclear power as a principal source of energy. History shows nation-state and political conflicts may spin nuclear power out of control to kill millions and devastate the environment. On the other hand, nuclear research and power offer avenues for humanity’s survival and longevity.

Mahaffey notes there were Japanese, as well as better known German scientists, who were working on the creation of a nuclear bomb that could destroy Allied armaments and combatants. The rush to weaponize radiation during WWII surprisingly includes research being done by Japan as well as Germany during WWII. America won the research race because of superior human and financial resources that could be marshalled to complete the scientific research and experimentation needed to perfect a nuclear weapon.

Mahaffey explores the creation and destructive history of the atom bomb.

Surprising to some listeners, Mahaffey explains Argentina’s significant effort to increase its research and development of nuclear power after WWII. Argentina created the National Atomic Energy Commision in 1950. The chief researcher, hired by President Juan Perón, was Ronald Richter (1909-1991), an Austrian-born scientist who headed their plan to create a fusion power facility. Richter fails but nuclear energy remains an important part of Argentina’s history. In the 1960s they built their own research reactors and by 1974 built their first fission nuclear power reactor, Atucha I. By 1984, they had two heavy-water reactors with Atucha I and Atucha II.

Ronald Richter (1909-1991, Austrian-born German who became an Argentine citizen who headed up the Argentine Huemul Project to create a nuclear fusion power plant. He failed, despite the millions of dollars spent to build and rebuild fusion power plants.

Yoshio Nishina (the father of modern physics research), Bunsaku Arakatsu, and Masatoshi Okochi created the so-called Ni-Go and F-Go projects to develop an atom bomb. They did not get beyond the laboratory stage because of a lack of resources, the exigency of war, and the complexity of nuclear technology. The energy of nuclear power, as shown by history, is two edged.

Yoshio Nishina (1890-1945, the father of modern physics research during WWII.)

On the one hand it can be used to purposely or accidently destroy humanity.

Image result for medical use of nuclear energy

On the other nuclear radiation can heal the sick

and potentially provide a clean renewable energy source.

Mahaffey explains how research in fusion can go awry. In a news article, two chemists reported in 1989 that fusion was created in their experiment by involving heavy water (deuterium oxide) and palladium electrodes. They reported excess heat production that they believed was nuclear fusion. As with all scientific experiment, their results had to be confirmed by other scientists testing of their results in the same experiment. Mahaffey, in his role at the Georgia Research Institute, was asked to replicate the experiment. Using the same tabletop experiment, Mahaffey initially confirmed Fleishmann’s and Pons’ findings. However, no other table-top experiments found the same results. What Mahaffey finally found was that the neutron counting device that was recording increased heat was the actual source of the heat increase, not the chemical interaction between heavy water and palladium electrodes. Further research is being conducted but the U.S. Department of Energy concluded in 2004 there is no convincing evidence to support cold fusion. Tests are still being done but Mahaffey infers that research is a scientific dead end. Mahaffey and a colleague tried again in a basement of his colleague’s house to try a similar experiment and failed.

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Nuclear power has the potential to revolutionize interplanetary travel. The higher efficiency and power, particularly with the perfection of fusion, will shorten travel times and make trips to Mars and beyond more feasible.

Mahaffey explains how communication will be a challenge when interplanetary travel becomes common. The distance to other planets or galaxies will impede communication because of the limits of the “speed of light”. However, the solution may lie in quantum entanglement’s experimental proof found by Clauser, Aspect, and Zellinger. The complexity of entanglement makes the theory unprovable at the time of Mahaffey’s book.

In theory, quantum entanglement suggests information (communication) may be instantaneously transmitted across galaxies without the limitations of the speed of light.

Mahaffey goes on to explain the risk of radiation in a chapter about a “dirty bomb”. Security measures used to protect the public from radiation leaks make thieves believe something valuable is being secured by government laboratories. Thieves will steal these secure containers only to find they are risking death by opening their booty. Additionally, Mahaffey notes radioactive material is often disposed of illegally and irradiates innocent people who own dump sites that received inadequately contained radioactive material.

PROGRESS IN SCIENCE

The point of “The Structure of Science Revolution” is that a paradigm begins science exploration, new paradigms challenge old paradigms, old paradigms persist, new paradigms demonstrate improved knowledge over old paradigms, old paradigms are overturned, and a new paradigm begins further search for knowledge

Books of Interest
Website: chetyarbrough.blog

The Structure of Scientific Revolutions

By: Thomas S. Kuhn

Narrated By: Dennis Holland

Thomas Kuhn (Author, 1922-1996 died at age 73, American historian and philosopher of science at Harvard and the University of California, Berkeley.)

This is a tough ten-hour listen. It does offer an overview of the evolution of science and how new discoveries have changed human understanding of the physical universe in a revolutionary way. Kuhn suggests every revolution in science begins with a paradigm, a model or framework that offers a clearer understanding of the physical universe.

Kuhn suggests every revolution in science begins with a paradigm.

The momentous discoveries of Newton, Einstein, Darwin, and Galileo are a few of the revolutionary leaders that Kuhn offers as examples. Newton developed a paradigm of earth’s laws of motion and universal gravitation that revolutionized understanding of forces and momentum on earth. Einstein developed a paradigm of the universe by introducing theories of special and general relativity that revolutionized our understanding of space, time, and gravity. Darwin developed a paradigm of animal evolution and natural selection that revolutionized biology and life’s diversity. Galileo developed a paradigm of our universe that revolved around the sun that revolutionized our view of the cosmos and humans place in it.

All of these geniuses created new, often more comprehensive, paradigms than predecessors like Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Democritus. New paradigms about air, the planets, and atoms improved predictability of results from new paradigms of thought, and experimentation that became more comprehensive and accurate than thoughts and experiments on older paradigms. Kuhn argues new paradigms foment science revolutions.

Kuhn explains how a new paradigm is challenged because of generally predictable results from older science discoveries.

The argument is made that the older discovery is better because it did have predictable results and the only reason there is an aberration is because of an undiscovered anomaly that will be discovered and explained by further thought, observation, and experimentation. However, as evidence from experiment grows to show older science discoveries are not as comprehensively predictable of results as the new paradigm, the new paradigm replaces the old one and a revolution ensues.

This is an insightful story but one gets bogged down by the number of examples that repeat similar revolutions.

The objections from old paradigm believers, failed old paradigm predictions, and ultimate revolution by new paradigms are repeated too many times.

SERVICE TO HUMANITY

Harari explains why bureaucracy and A.I. can mislead as easily as inform. A.I. should never be considered a decision maker but a tool for human understanding of a complex world.

Books of Interest
Website: chetyarbrough.blog

Nexus (A Brief History of Information Networks from the Stone Age to AI)

By: Yuval Noah Harari

Narrated By: Vidish Athavale

Yuval Noah Harari (Author, Israeli medievalist, historian, and public intellectual serving as a professor in the Department of History at Hebrew University of Jerusalem)

Yuval Noah Harari’s “Nexus” is a perspective on information networks and how they evolve from neanderthal grunts to the fundamental link of society. Harari dissects human history and information networks with an eye toward the existence and future of Artificial Intelligence. Harari’s point is that information networks create, control, and compel change. Civilization began with verbal, then written, then video, and finally digital information that brings human beings together into larger and larger groups.

Networked information creates interest groups. Harari explains these interest groups rise from the evolution of information networks.

With written documents and invention of the printing press, the influence of information spreads across the world. Reproduced documents like government Constitutions, the Bible, Quran, The Torah, The Vedas, The Tripitaka, The Guru Granth Shib, The Tao Te Ching, and The Bhagavad Gita create followers whose understanding of society is reenforced by bureaucratic organizations. Villages, towns, cities, and nations grow from religious organizations and government bureaucracies.

Harari notes how information network’s compel obeisance to group think.

Human conflicts may be based on the desire for money, power, and prestige, but Harari’s point is that the agency of change is the information network. Without cohesiveness of an information network, governments, rebellions, and invasions fail. Successful governments, whether formed from rebellions, or invasions succeed or fail based on bureaucracies that use information networks to influence and indoctrinate citizens of established or acquired territories. The power of information networks is exponentially increased by A.I.

The crux of Harari’s concern is the difference between autocracy and democracy and the harmful potential of a digital age that uses information networks to weaponize and control society with the addition of A.I.

The next great economic revolution, after the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions is today’s Information Age. I would argue America nearly lost control of the great wealth it created by making the rich richer and the poor unchanged. American democracy’s inequality of opportunity remains a work in process.

America’s failure to provide income equality.

Providing equal economic opportunity is a complicated achievement because it begins with the birth of newborns, acceptance of legal immigration and an education system that fairly serves the needs of society. America is among the wealthiest nations in the world but unlike the Nordic countries and its northern neighbor, Canada, it ranks below the middle for income equality. America’s economic tide is not raising all boats. The Information Age provides an opportunity for America to get its economy right by using A.I. to create a more equal income opportunity for its citizens.

We are moving out of the industrial age.

We are entering the human services age. A.I. presents a second opportunity for America to address income inequality by educating young Americans, immigrants, and citizens to serve the needs of themselves and the people of society. America needs to smooth the transition from being just a product producer to both a producer of goods and services. As A.I. reduces employment for product production, workers should be reeducated to become workers in service to society.

Harari’s book is erudite, enlightening, and worth one’s time to read and understand. He advises of many things beyond what is mentioned in this brief review. Harari explains why bureaucracy is both a good and bad thing and that A.I. can mislead as easily as inform. A.I. should never be considered a decision maker but a tool for human understanding of a complex world.

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